A Guide to Spanish Politics

President Trump is pursuing global instability without an end. Earlier this year, he said NATO troops “stayed a little off the front lines” in Afghanistan. Trump mocked then British prime minister Sir Keir Starmer for “talking to his team” and French President Emmanuel Macron because “[his wife] treats him extremely badly.” He has threatened withdrawal from NATO. Meanwhile, Russia has continued its violent and abhorrent invasion of Ukraine, hiking energy bills and challenging security in Europe for the first time since the Second World War.

At such a time of chaos in America, the UK should seek an alternative to its age-old "special relationship.” The most credible replacement would be a much closer relationship with Europe. Geographically and economically, Europe are our closest neighbours- the EU accounts for 41% of UK exports. Militarily, the UK has shared a history of collaboration with Europe as a member of NATO. Tighter relations with the continent is the only logical path to a secure Britain amid international turbulence. 

The public agree- almost every opinion poll since late 2021 has suggested the UK would vote to rejoin the EU, with the most recent polls suggesting a lead in the double-digits. Support for rejoining the EU is shared by the Greens and Liberal Democrats, as well as the prominent nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales. Seemingly, the government agrees. In May 2025, Sir Keir Starmer signed an agreement that reduced red tape for exports between the UK and EU, and built closer ties with Europe. Whilst this deal is largely insignificant, boasting economic advantages of just £9 billion over 15 years, it portrays a larger “reset” in Anglo-continental relations. During the Iran conflict, the British government announced that it will pursue a closer defence partnership with Europe. 

Despite both public and political support for Europe, Britons know very little about it. In a recent YouGov poll, measuring the most famous foreign politicians. 86% of Brits recognised the name of the French President; 37% recognised the Italian prime minister; 26% recognised the German Chancellor; 25% recognised the Spanish prime minister. Given Spain is the most visited country by Brits, the latter figure is surprisingly low. In the above YouGov poll, 6 of the 10 most recognised foreign politicians are Americans. Does this mean that the British media invest too much attention in American politics?

Previously, I have explored the politics of France, Italy and Germany. In this article, I’ll explore the politics of Spain by explaining its electoral processes, government and political past and future. 

Politics

The Kingdom of Spain boasts a population of 49 million people and an economy worth $2 trillion. Between 1936 until 1939, the nation was plunged into Civil War. The Nationalists, aided by fascist Germany and Italy, overthrew the left-wing democratically elected Republicans. As a result, Francisco Franco was installed as Spain’s dictator. He ruled the country until his death in 1975. King Juan Carlos led Spain’s transition into a democracy. 

In 1978, Spain restored its constitutional monarchy. This means the nation’s monarch, like Britain’s, does not practically rule the country. Spain’s sovereign is the head of state. He is also commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces. The Spanish throne uses male-preference primogeniture. This means that, if a female heir has a brother, then they will not become monarch - regardless of his age. Felipe VI has served as King of Spain since 2014. 

The Prime Minister of Spain serves as head of government. He is responsible for establishing domestic and foreign policy, selecting and sacking ministers and co-ordinating the actions of the government. To become Prime Minister, the Monarch must nominate a candidate. Afterwards, an absolute majority of the Congress of Deputies must approve said candidate. This is known as the investiture vote. Next, the sovereign appoints them as Prime Minister. In practice, the head of government is the leader of the largest party in the lower house of Parliament. If no candidate wins an investiture vote for 2 months, then Parliament is dissolved and a general election is held. Since 2018, Pedro Sánchez has served as Prime Minister of Spain.

The Cortes Generales, or Spanish Parliament, is the nation’s legislature. It is composed of the Congress of Deputies, the lower house, and the Senate, the upper house. All bills must first be considered, without exception, in the Congress of Deputies. The Senate can veto or amend a bill, although Congress can override that decision with an absolute majority. Congress deciphers the executive branch of government. This means the former chamber wields greater power compared to the latter.

The Congress comprises 350 members. Deputies are elected using the closed-list system of proportional representation. A voter elects a party, not a candidate. There are 52 constituencies across Spain - each represented by a number of deputies based on its population. Seats are allocated using the d’Hondt method. For every party, divide their total number of votes by the number of seats they have won so far. Each party starts with zero seats. The calculation is repeated until all seven seats are filled. Use of proportional representation means that Spanish governments are often coalitions. 

The Senate consists of 266 members. Each province elects four senators each. Elections are contested using the limited vote system. This means voters cast three votes. They vote for individual candidates, not political parties. Like First Past the Post, the candidate with the most votes wins. 58 Senators are selected by the governments of autonomous communities - or Spain’s states. The autonomous communities receive a minimum of one senator, plus another for each one million inhabitants. Voters elect the state government, therefore Senators from these communities are indirectly chosen.

Government

At Spain’s last general election, in 2023, the left-wing coalition eked out a victory over the right. This meant Pedro Sánchez won a third term as Prime Minister of Spain. He is the head of the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) - which translates into Spanish Socialist Workers' Party. The PSOE, a centre-left social democrat party, joined forces with the progressive Sumar and numerous minor left-wing politicians to form a coalition government. It was a continuation of the agreement in Sánchez’s second term. 

Alberto Núñez Feijóo leads the Christian conservative People’s Party (PP.) At the 2023 election, they won the most votes - although the PP failed to win an absolute majority. Vox won the third largest number of votes. It opposes immigration, abortion and same-sex marriage. Therefore some describe it as radical or far-right. 

To an extent, Sánchez’s political career echoes that of Andy Burnham. The economics professor was elected to the Congress in the 2000s and rose to serve as the leader of his party from 2014 until 2016. Following a poor electoral performance, he quit frontline politics and drove around Spain in his car - earning a reputation as a “man of the people.” Sanchez, like Burnham, returned to national politics in the top job. 

On the international stage, Sánchez’s fierce opposition to President Trump is unparalleled. He prevented US warplanes from using joint airbases and the country’s airspace in the Iran War. As a result, Trump described Spain as “terrible” and “unfriendly,” even threatening to end all trade relations between Washington and Madrid and suggesting that Spain should be expelled from NATO. Initially, Spain was alone as the sole European government to criticise the strikes. That fringe position soon became mainstream. Italy’s far-right Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni has since distanced herself from Trump - so have the UK, Germany and France. 

This continued a series of anti-Israel actions by Spain. In 2024, they recognised the State of Palestine and joined South Africa’s genocide case against Israel. Sánchez categorised Israel as a “genocidal state” in the following year. This means Spain has acted as one of the most pro-Palestinian nations in Europe. 

In economic policy, Sánchez defends his government’s record. The Spanish economy expanded by 2.8% in 2025, far outpacing the European average of 1.4%. At its heart, Spain’s robust growth since the mid-2010s has been driven by higher demand and consumption and an influx of immigrants. Spain is also outperforming its neighbours on GDP growth per capita. The government has some control over industry - owning the national postal service and minority stakes in energy, infrastructure and defence businesses. Although Spain’s unemployment remains at towering levels at over 10% and public debt persists at over 100%, those numbers have steadily declined in recent years. 

Sánchez’s liberal position on immigration has drawn criticism. Throughout his tenure, Sánchez battled with the problem of overcrowded boats carrying migrants from West Africa to the Canary Islands. In a phenomenon similar to crossings over the English Channel, an estimated 46,843 irregular migrants entered Spain in 2024 through the islands. As a result, Feijóo accused Sánchez of “promoting Spain as a destination” instead of going to Africa to “fight the (migration) mafia”. In January 2026, his government offered legal status to 500,000 of Spain’s undocumented immigrants. In response, the PP pledged to block the amnesty.

On 30 and 31 July 2026, at least 72,000 migrants crossed from Morocco into Ceuta, a Spanish territory in Africa, primarily by swimming around a border fence. The vast majority returned to Morocco within days. The Spanish government attributed the influx to criminal networks. One opinion poll for El País suggested 63% of Spaniards described Sánchez’s response to the crisis as “bad” or “very bad.” As a result, Vox is viewed by Spanish voters as the party “most capable” of handling immigration.

Independence movements across Spain have also dominated Sánchez’s premiership. Catalonia, located in northeastern Spain, regained autonomy within Spain following the restoration of democracy. The 2008 financial crisis developed a widespread feeling that the region contributed more in taxes to the central government than it earned in return. Consequently, separatist campaigns gained momentum. In 2009 and 2011, symbolic referendums on Catalan independence were held. Later, a pro-independence group gained control of the region’s Parliament and held binding referenda on separatism. Given the Catalan government lacks the power to hold a referendum, they were considered illegal by the Constitutional Court. Opinion polling suggests, if a referendum was held, then Catalonia would vote to remain in Spain. Coalitions with support from across the political spectrum both support and oppose separatism. 

Independence movements are also prominent in the Basque Country in northern Spain. This is driven by a desire to preserve cultural heritage. In polling conducted for the Basque government, 19% of respondents supported independence whilst 43% opposed. 

Conclusion

Spain will head to the polls for a general election no later than 22 August 2027. Although he has presided over a resilient economy and excelled in foreign policy, Sánchez is embroiled in scandal. In June 2026, his right-hand man José Luis Ábalos was imprisoned for 24 years for taking bribes on public contracts for sanitary equipment such as ‌face masks during the Covid pandemic. Additionally, Ábalos’ aide Koldo Garcia was jailed. Days earlier, Sánchez’s wife was identified as a flight risk and was ordered to surrender her passport during corruption and influence-peddling charges. Corruption scandals have severely damaged Sánchez’s reputation. 

He suffers an approval rating of net negative 30 points. The PP leads the PSOE in opinion polls by between 5 and 10 points. 

An agreement between the PP and Vox in the southern region of Andalucía has refuelled the likelihood of a national coalition. This means Spain could soon fall to the growing epidemic of far-right politics.